Additional peer-reviewed, empirical tests of the “programs-for-the-poor → poor programs” thesis:
| # | Citation | Empirical design | How it operationalises the slogan | Key finding (⇧ = supports slogan) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Korpi, W. & Palme, J. 1998. “The Paradox of Redistribution and Strategies of Equality.” American Sociological Review 63(5): 661-687 | LIS micro-data, 11 rich democracies | Targets-at-poor vs earnings-related vs universal welfare regimes → poverty & Gini | Targeting lowers budgets and achieves less poverty reduction ⇧ www.louischauvel.org |
| 2 | Brady, D. & Burroway, R. 2012. “Targeting, Universalism, and Single-Mother Poverty.” Demography 49(2): 719-746 | Multilevel model, 18 OECD countries | Share of transfers going to bottom quintile vs universalism → single-mother poverty | More targeting ↔ higher poverty; universalism protective ⇧ pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |
| 3 | Marx, I., Salanauskaite, L. & Verbist, G. 2016. “For the Poor, but Not Only the Poor: On Optimal Pro-Poorness in Redistributive Policies.” Social Forces 95(1): 1-24 (orig. 2013 WP Paradox of Redistribution Revisited) | 30 yrs LIS data, 30+ countries | “Pro-poorness” index vs poverty/gini | Strongly pro-poor targeting yields smaller antipoverty payoff after controlling for spending — revives paradox ⇧ www.iza.org |
| 4 | Brady, D. & Bostic, A. 2015. “Paradoxes of Social Policy: Welfare Transfers, Relative Poverty, and Redistribution Preferences.” American Sociological Review 80(2): 268-298 | 28 countries, LIS + ISSP | Low-income targeting, transfer share, universalism → poverty & support for redistribution | Low-income targeting undermines public support and fails to cut poverty; universalism wins ⇧ journals.sagepub.com |
| 5 | Jacques, O. & Noël, A. 2018. “The Case for Welfare State Universalism, or the Lasting Relevance of the Paradox of Redistribution.” Journal of European Social Policy 28(1): 70-85 | 1990-2013 panel, 21 OECD | Degree of universalism vs poverty & inequality | Universalism consistently tied to lower poverty; no evidence that targeting is more efficient ⇧ journals.sagepub.com |